Domestic Terrorism not a new phenomenon.

 

In the aftermath of this week’s despicable acts of terrorism in Boston, we should note that history truly has a habit of repeating itself. Significant are the number of  terrorists, who we welcomed into the bosom of American Life. History shows us; it is often the children of second or third generation immigrants, who respond to rallying cries from the old country.

WWI provides a good example of just how groups of young German-Americans were mobilized, often by tenuous links to Imperial Germany, to conduct acts of terrorism with devastating consequences.

Although unparalleled in loss of life, 9/11 was not the first time terrorists had struck at the heart of America. Even while the United States remained neutral in WWI, small groups of immigrants launched attacks on the very fabric of American life.

 

A photo from the Aftermath

Black Tom Pier

During the night of July 29^th 1916, a group of German saboteurs blew up an area of New York harbor equivalent to five blocks. At the center of the explosion was a warehouse holding artillery shells and ammunition destined for the Allies. Shells lit up the night sky over Manhattan as people were blown from their beds. Remarkably only five fatalities were reported, one a baby boy thrown from his cot with the sheer force of the blast. Geologists calculate the blast as having registered 5.5 on the Richter scale.

The Black Tom Explosion.

http://www.njcu.edu/programs/jchistory/pages/b_pages/black_tom_explosion.htm

Bio Terrorism in the US.

In 1915, just six miles from the White House in the affluent suburb of Chevy Chase, a young German-American doctor cultivated and distributed anthrax for the infection of horses and mules destined for the WWI Allies.

Surviving photo of Dr Anthrax, Anton Dilger

Anton Dilger was the son of an American Civil War hero. Awarded the Medal of Honor at Chancellorsville, his father Hubert Dilger, an American patriot was one of the finest artillery officers in the Union Army.

Unconcerned at the possibility of general contamination among the population, Dilger conducted his deadly work in the basement of his home and distributed the spores via a web of German-Americans based in the Baltimore area. In 1916, Dilger found himself under suspicion by the Bureau of Investigation, forerunner to the F.B.I. and escaped through Mexico under an assumed name. Ironically he met his end in the Spanish Influenza epidemic of 1918. He was hiding in Spain.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anton_Dilger

It was some time before the US intelligence services got to grips with domestic terrorism in WW1. The Government of the day believed that espionage and sabotage were European problems. Many instances of terrorism were simply ignored.

Although most instances of the terrorism of WW1 are unlike the cowardly acts that we have witnessed these past years, there is a common thread. America should never assume when she repeats the famous words "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe free....." that she is not enabling abuses of the nation.

The stories of Black Tom and the Anthrax threat in WWI will be featured in our new WWI four part series, Over There Doughboys in The Great War.

WWI. The Chemists War

World War I was the origin for many of the world’s “firsts,” including the first use of chemical warfare. Though chemical warfare any type of poisonous weaponry was supposedly banned in the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions (an international peace conference), it was the poisonous gases during World War I that caused over 1,230,000 injuries, and approximately 91,000 fatalities worldwide, giving it an appropriate reputation of perhaps one of the most feared weapons of the time. 

Chlorine Gas Distribution

Particularly prevalent during this time was sulfur mustard, otherwise known as mustard gas. This poison gas worked so well in war times due to the fact that it took very little to cause mass casualties and injuries, and it was able to achieve multiple avenues of damage to opposing troops. Not only was the gas capable of causing bodily harm, but it also contaminated food and water sources, permeated surrounding land masses, and even infiltrated the very trenches that soldiers inhabited day and night. Mustard gas also can be carried by the wind, allowing it to move wherever it likes, unlike a simple bullet that has but one instantaneous destination (although, it can be carried via artillery shell, as the Germans first utilized in 1917). While most weaponry provides immediate and short-lived effects, mustard gas can potentially continue to haunt an area, whether that be a human body as it slowly takes its toll or a land mass as it essentially invades its soil, for weeks at a time.

British Tommies Blinded By Gas

While the effects of sulfur mustard gas can vary, there are 5 primary symptoms of mustard gas poisoning:

1.     Skin blistering: if exposed, particularly in hot or tropical climates, mustard gas’ exposure to the skin can cause up to second and third degree burns and painful blistering, as well as severe scarring. These signs usually appear within 24-48 hours after exposure and being with the skin turning red to yellow in color.

2.     Blinding: If exposure to mustard gas is severe enough, it can cause temporary blinding and severe irritation within 3-12 hours after contact.

3.     Aplastic or Pancytopenia anemia: a decrease in the number the number of blood cells and platelets being created as the gas infects the bone marrow.

4.     Digestive Tract irritation: As the gas makes its way through the body, it may cause fever, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and general abdominal pain.

5.     Respiratory tract irritation: A runny/bloody nose, coughing, and shortness of breath, severe irritation (blistering of the lungs and windpipe) are also symptoms of exposure to mustard gas without proper protection.

Russian Casualties Of Poison Gas

More long term effects include permanent blindness, lung cancer, and/other death.

While this form of chemical warfare was quite popular, it was not nearly the sole weapon of mass destruction used during the Great War. Others included chlorine gas - which was actually used as the very first mass attack by the Germans and the very first use of chemical weapons in World War I at the Second Battle of Ypres on April 22, 1915 - phosgene and diphosgene, which work to destroy the respiratory organs, like chlorine gas, as well as hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride which essentially cause the body to become unable to receive oxygen. 

It can be said that World War I is the chemists’ war due to the new level of mass destruction the use of scientific weapons as opposed to previous forms of defense. However, the use of chemical weapons was still very much alive and well, and not just a threat to the front lines, but also for those at home fearing attacks (as seen in the featured informative video advising citizens how to treat poisonous gas exposure).

Post by : Raven Joyner, Livingbattlefield Researcher and Intern.

Bibliography

"Facts About Sulfur Mustard." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sulfurmustard/basics/facts.asp>.

"Fast Facts: Mustard Gas." Fox News. FOX News Network, 17 May 2004. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/05/17/fast-facts-mustard-gas/>.

"Firstworldwar.com." First World War. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. <http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/gas.htm>.

Fitzgerald, Gerard J. "Chemical Warfare and Medical Response During World War I." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 27 Sept. 2005. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2376985/>.

"Gas Warfare : United States. Surgeon-General's Office : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive." Internet Archive. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <https://archive.org/details/101560809.nlm.nih.gov>.

"Photos of The Great War." - Error. The Great War Primary Document Archive, n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <http://www.gwpda.org/photos/coppermine/thumbnails.php>.

Schneider, Barry R. "Chemical Weapon." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/108951/chemical-weapon>.

"The Use of Gas Warfare in World War One." The Use of Gas Warfare in World War One. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.wwvets.com/GasWarfare.html>.

"What to Do in a Gas Attack : Filmedia Corp. : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive." Internet Archive. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <https://archive.org/details/WhattoDo1943>.

April 6th 2017, An Opportunity For Our Kids To Understand How 'The Great War' Changed America.

 

Typical WWI Scene of American Troops in Action

The First World War changed a lot about America as a country, but also American daily life, society and roles in society. During America’s time in the war, many women – including those who typically worked in a more domesticated work force – helped play their part in the war by enlisting  in the military. Though women at the time were not fighting on the front line, 21,000 enlisted in the Army and Navy Nurse Corps as there was an enormous need for nurses and medical assistance on battlefields. In many cases, nurses ended up wounded or even killed by gunfire while trying to attend to male soldiers’ needs after being injured. 

A Group of Nurses Outside Their Barracks.

            Back at home, however, women were also filling in  male positions in the workforce while so many of America’s men got drafted in to the war. Attending to new types of job opportunities and positions within society lead to many advancements and changes in gender roles for the female population. 

Women Building Boats During WWI

It became much more common to see women in pants, or “trouserettes,” as they needed less binding clothing that prevented them from being able to perform new duties in factories and other fields. 

 

Women in Trouserettes

These changes in gender roles lead America as a whole to see women as more valuable members of society than ever before, thus initiating the 19^th amendment to the constitution which gave women the right to vote. The same cannot be said, however, for African Americans who also played a major role in the war.

  Despite numerous women helping fill out societal roles, as the Great War put a halt on immigration, America still found itself with a lack of workers to fill much needed positions. This gave African Americans the perfect opportunity to seek out those very jobs and expand across America. The African American expansion initiated by World War I – when approximately 6 million African Americans migrated North – is known as The Great Migration, which lasted from 1915 to 1970. 

 

African Americans On The Move During WWI

During the great migration, many southern musicians migrated to New York, particularly Harlem, which sparked the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s. Musical styles that had been inherent to southern black culture suddenly became welcome and loved in the northern areas of the country, particularly jazz. Who knew WWI was a primary factor in the creation of the Jazz Age?

 

Lieutenant James Reese Europe & the 369th

Despite all of the migratingion, nearly 400,000 African Americans still enlisted in the United States Army. This number is particularly profound due to the fact that racism and intolerance were still thriving in the United States, so much so that African Americans were subject to Jim Crow laws even while in training to fight for their country. Out of those enlisted, nearly 200,000 went to serve in Europe, though only roughly 42,000 actually ever fought on the front lines. Others helped run military encampments by serving as cooks as other much needed jobs. However, out of the 42,000 that served in combative roles, particularly the 369^th infantry, better known as the Harlem Hell-Fighters, 191 of their days  in Europe were in spent combat, which was the longest of all American units at the time.

             African Americans were not the only minorities assisting America in WWI; Native Americans also played a major role in the war efforts. Approximately 12,000 enlisted in WWI, which is particularly interesting given that they were not even considered citizens at the time. In fact, they could not even vote! Perhaps the most important role Native Americans played in WWI was that of “code-talking,” which essentially was utilizing the nearly 30 different languages and dialects inherent to the Native Americans in order to disorient and perplex enemies when sending messages. 
 

Edward Denomie, Famous Code Talker.

The Code-Talkers, as they became known, would deliver messages in Native American tongue, and later translate them for their American counterparts. This ensured less breaches in security and military plans.
 

Back at home, however, Native Americans lost a lot of their already sparse reservation areas due to land being needed for things such as war gardens – a garden planted with the intended purpose of increasing American food supply during the war, especially being that the majority of soldiers now fighting in the war were previously American farmers. Much of the nation’s food supply was aided by Native Americans, women, and even children.

Famous WWI Propaganda Poster.

            The Boy Scouts of America (founded 1910) and the Girl Scouts of the United States of America (founded 1912) both went through great lengths to fundraise and provide resources for the war, including planting war gardens (the Boy Scouts alone planted over 12,000). While girl were busy learning about food production and conservation and working in hospitals, the boys worked on selling liberty loans or war bonds to the public, which essentially was a fundraising effort to help finance the war. With the use of these loans, the Boy Scouts raised over $355 million for war funding. Both Boy and Girl Scouts collected peach pits for the war, which were used in the filters for gas masks. Boy Scouts reportedly collected approximately 100 railroad cars full of peach pits!

 

1st Girl Scouts And Their Founder.

            Though everyone was working hard in the continental US to help soldiers overseas, many still found time to relax and attend theater screenings, though they did not exactly escape the war in the cinema, either. Many propaganda filled productions were in circulation at the time. Film such as Kaiser: The Beast of Berlin (1918), Wolves of Kulture (1918), and Hearts of the World (1918) were widely popular screenings to attend. Hearts of the World was an especially interesting production due to the fact that the director of the film, D.W. Griffith, also directed the film Birth of a Nation (1915) just three years earlier, which exemplified extraordinary values of racism and attempted to justify bigotry within the country. Many found it intriguing that Griffith used the same cinematic and propaganda tactics to sway audiences to be more passionate about the war and America’s involvement.

Raven Joyner
Principal Research Assistant
Over There Doughboys in The Great War

 

Bibliography

"10 Things to Do This Weekend." Crain's Chicago Business. Crain's Chicago Business, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

Britten, Thomas A. American Indians in World War I: At Home and at War. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1997. Print.

"Girl Scouts Timeline1912-1919." History. Girl Scouts of the United States of America, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

"Great Migration: The African-American Exodus North." NPR. NPR, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"History of the BSA Highlights." History of the BSA Highlights. Boy Scouts of America, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

McDaid, Jennifer D. "Virginia Women and the First World War." Library of Virginia, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"Native Americans in the U.S. Military." Native Americans in the U.S. Military. United States Navy, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

"PDF Archives: April 27, 1917." PDF Archives: 04/27/1917. Minnesota Daily, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"Photographs of the 369th Infantry and African Americans during World War I." National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"Post-World War I American Cinema." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

Reilly, Chrissie. "Native Americans Vex Germany." Native Americans in the U.S. Military. United States Army, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

"The World War I War Garden and Victory Garden - How Does Your Garden Grow Online Exhibit State Historical Society of North Dakota." The World War I War Garden and Victory Garden - How Does Your Garden Grow Online Exhibit State Historical Society of North Dakota. Library of Congress, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

 

First American Aviator To Shoot Down A German Plane During WWI.

Kiffin Yates Rockwell (1892-1916)

Kiffin Rockwell in French Uniform, September 1915

Early Life:

Kiffin Rockwell was born in Newport, Tennessee in 1892. However, between his South Carolinian mother and Rockwell’s North Carolinian father, Rockwell has been dubbed an honorary indigene of the Carolinas and is often referred to as such. Due to the death of Rockwell’s father and wanting a better life for her children, Mrs. Rockwell moved her family back to her home town in Marion County, South Carolina before settling in Ashville in 1906 in hopes of providing a decent education for her children. 

Military Years:

             In 1908, Rockwell attended the Virginia Military Institute. Being that military blood already ran in the family – Rockwell’s maternal grandfather from South Carolina was an officer in the Confederate Army, and his paternal grandfather from North Carolina was a captain serving in the same Army – it was no surprise that when World War I broke out in Europe in 1914, Rockwell and his brother Paul were among the first three Americans to volunteer their services to the French Army.

While serving in Europe, Rockwell fought with Battalion C of the Second Marching Regiment of the Second Foreign Battalion, which lasted until 1915 when he fell victim to a (second) very serious leg injury. Despite his wounds, he was then prompted to take on aviation as an alternative to stay in the military. As a result of such, Rockwell became one of the founding members of the Escadrille Americaine, which later became known as the Escadrille LaFayette. 

Kiffin Beside His Aircraft, Nieuport 17

Many refer to Rockwell as a particularly diligent and unwavering airman. Rockwell holds the title for the first American to take down a German plane during WWI, despite his lack of any piloting skills prior to joining the French in aviation (which he had done just 28 days before). Rockwell continued to fight in 142 other aerial battles. Among the awards Rockwell received while enlisted include the Médaille Militaire and Croix de Guerre.

A Modern Replica Of The Nieuport 17

Death:

            After being shot down by a German plane, Rockwell fell to his death in Verdun, France in September of 1916 after an exploding bullet hit him in the chest. He was the second American in WWI to be killed in flight. Rockwell is currently buried in the Lafayette Escadrille Memorial in Marnes-la-Coquette, France.

Kiffin's Grave Alongside Fellow Flyers

Article: Raven Joyner

Principal Research Assistant 

'Over There' Doughboys in The Great War

Resoures

"Kiffin Rockwell: The Carolinas' First Lost Hero in WWI." Kiffin Rockwell: The Carolinas' First Lost Hero in WWI. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Kiffin Yates Rockwell (1892 - 1916) - Find A Grave Memorial." Kiffin Yates Rockwell (1892 - 1916) - Find A Grave Memorial. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"North Carolina Centennial of Flight." North Carolina Centennial of Flight. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Rockwell, Kiffin Yates." NCpedia Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Welcome to the Smith McDowel House Museum in Asheville, NC." Welcome to the Smith McDowel House Museum in Asheville, NC. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Kiffin Y. Rockwell, World War I AviatorLafayette EscadrilleBiography & Photographs."Kiffin Y. Rockwell, World War I Aviator. Lafayette Escadrille. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

The Lusitania Goes Down.

Over There Doughboys In The Great War
To Be Presented By
Captain Dale Dye USMC (Ret).

Excerpt From Episode 1
The Rising Tide.
(copyright Livingbattlefield of SC)

Lusitania Arriving in New York.

Images of Lusitania, press announcement, graphic maps inter-cut with Dale speaking.

DALE
The luxury liner Lusitania was launched in 1907, just as the competition for control of the lucrative Trans-Atlantic passenger market was heating up. She had revolutionary new turbine engines and could carry 50% more passengers than her competitors at 25 knots. She set out on her final voyage from New York to Liverpool on May 1st 1915.

The Germans had declared the sea around the British Isles as a war zone and warned German travelers not to sail on the Lusitania.

Image of the press announcement and other relevant photos.

DALE V/O
The German government took out a series of advertisements in American newspapers the morning of her departure. They warned of an attack on the liner, but she sailed regardless. She left port with her experienced Captain, William Turner at the helm and a full compliment of 1900 passengers. He was confident that his super speed would help him outrun any U-boats and she was flying the stars and stripes.

Lusitania leaves NY and we see map of her route across the Atlantic (archive and graphics).

DALE V/O (CONT’D)
As she slipped out of New York harbor and out into the Atlantic ocean, nobody realized how significant this final voyage would become.

CUT TO:
INT. NAVAL COMMAND, QUEENSTOWN IRELAND - DAY
We see British Admiral Coke studying charts and frantically talking with subordinates (re-enactment)

DALE V/O
In Queenstown, Ireland on May 7th 1915 British Admiral Coke was agitated. There had been four separate sightings of a German U-boat, since dawn and the warship HMS Centurion had been sunk the previous day. At 10:59 am, he received news that the steamer Candidate had been torpedoed and gone down. Within a few minutes a signal was received from the British Admiralty... German Submarines active in southern part of Irish channel ... make sure Lusitania gets this.

CUT TO:
INT. BRIDGE OF THE LUSITANIA - DAY
11:52am - We see Captain Turner receiving the message from Coke and conferring with other officers.

DALE V/O
The message presented Turner with a problem. The possible location of the submarine was somewhere in the St Georges Channel and his instructions were to navigate a course down the center of it.  He was supposed to be escorted through the channel by the cruiser Juno and she was nowhere in sight. He scanned the misty horizon and decided to change his course slightly, bringing him dangerously close to the rocky coast of Ireland.

CUT TO:
INT. DINING ROOM OF THE LUSITANIA - DAY
People in formal dining attire mill around the dining room (re-enactment).

DALE V/O
As the Lusitania moved closer to the shore to avoid enemy U-boats, passengers had no idea that they were entering U-boat Alley. Many were still enjoying lunch as the vessel sailed into the danger zone.

CUT TO:
INT. U-20 SUB - DAY
We see Kapitain Leutenant, Walter Schwieger look thought his periscope (re-enactment).

DALE V/O
For Captain Walter Schwieger this target of opportunity was too much to let slip away.
EXT. LUISITANIA THROUGH PERISCOPE - DAY
Small image of the Lusitania in the distance, we can see her four smoking funnels.

DALE V/O (CONT)
He recognized the Lusitania, calculated her speed at 22 knots and estimated that she was 14 miles away. He submerged and set a course that would enable him to get a perfect flank shot.

EXT. U-20 SUB - DAY
The sub submerges.
BACK TO:
INT. AND POV, BRIDGE OF THE LUSITANIA - DAY
From out at sea we spot the lighthouse of the Old Head of Kinsale.

DALE V/O
As the Lusitania moved ever closer to the Irish coast line, Turner recognized the famous lighthouse at The Old Head of Kinsale. He ordered a change of course. He was heading for Queenstown and safety, but this change of course brought him right into the path of U-20 and the eager Schwieger.
We see a map with the liner changing course directly into the path of U-20

CUT TO:
INT. AND POV U-20 SUB - DAY
We see Schwieger peering through his periscope, as the Lusitania come into view we see the bow of the ship line up with the cross-hairs.

DALE V/O
The U-boat captain wanted his torpedo to strike the ship in the area of the forward boiler room, so he calculated that releasing as the bow of Lusitania met the cross-hairs would give him the perfect position. He gave the order to fire.

EXT. IRISH SEA - DAY
A torpedo streams through the water.

CUT TO:
EXT. AND POV, CROWS NEST OF THE LUSITANIA - DAY
We see Able Seaman Thomas Quinn on the crow’s nest and we see his view of the torpedo heading for the ship.

DALE V/O
Able Seaman Thomas Quinn was on lookout in the crow’s nest of the liner as he spotted the torpedo heading for the ship.
He shouted down to the bridge, but it was too late.

CUT TO:
INT. AND POV U-20 SUB - DAY
We watch Schwieger tracking the torpedo until it strikes the liner.

DALE V/O
Schwieger watched the torpedo as explodes forward of where he had calculated.

INT. DINNING ROOM LUSITANIA - DAY
Guests are still sitting at the table as a violent explosion shakes the whole structure. We see people being thrown around, we hear screams and the sounds of breaking glass (re-enactment).

INT. AND POV U-20 SUB - DAY
We see through Schwieger’s periscope as the Lusitania immediately begins to list. Then we hear and see a second explosion.

DALE V/O
Schwieger had only released one torpedo, but now there were two explosions. This is what he wrote in his log:

EXT. LUISITANIA - DAY
We see images of the Lusitania sinking bow-down into the ocean (miniature special effects).

ACTOR VO
(German accent)
There was an unusually heavy detonation beyond the front funnel. The explosion of the torpedo must have been followed by a second explosion, boiler, coal or powder? The superstructure at the point of impact and the bridge are torn asunder.... It appears as if the ship is going to capsize very shortly.

DALE V/O
The Lusitania took only 18 minutes to sink. As her bow disappeared under the cold waters of The Irish Sea, her stern rose high up in the air before plummeting into the depths.

CUT TO:
EXT. IRISH SEA AT KINSALE - DAY
We see the ocean waves with the lighthouse in the far distance. We hear screams and splashes and see boats, floating luggage and people thrashing around in the water, trying to save themselves.

DALE V/O
One thousand 198 souls perished in the cold murky waters off the coast of Ireland. Of these, 128 were Americans.

Lusitania at The Bottom of The Irish Sea. (Photo Courtesy of Wexford Sub Acqua Club)

(Script Copyright  of Livingbattlefield of SC)

Hell-Fighters Band to Come Alive.

 

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A Lasting Love Affair

Lieutenant (Bandleader) James Reese Europe.

The Great War changed many things in France. The French lost more than four percent of their population in the meat grinder of combat, and their towns and cities still bear the scars to this very day. But in the midst of all the carnage, a love affair developed. A love affair that grows stronger as each year passes, and it was all thanks to a group of African Americans.

Lieutenant James Reese Europe, and the soldiers of the all-black, 15^th New York National Guard Regiment, shipped out of New York on December 27^th 1917, destined for the bloody trenches of France. Packed away alongside all the usual stuff a soldier would carry were the tools of their other trade; trombones, trumpets, saxophones and a whole variety of musical instruments. These men were on their way to start another French Revolution, the revolution of Jazz.

It took a while before the men of the 15^th New York got to do any soldiering. The commanders of The American Expeditionary Force just didn’t want to place black soldiers alongside their white American brothers, so Europe and his men dug trenches, laid railroad track, and unloaded supplies. But all the while they mesmerized their French hosts with this new and intoxicating jazz, and the love affair began.

The French Army was colorblind. They didn’t have a problem with these black sons of America, so they twisted the arms of a few U.S generals and finally got permission to incorporate the 15^th New York into their ranks.

Now called the 369^th Infantry Regiment, this group of musicians fought with real élan, earning the nickname, The Harlem Hell-Fighters.

We will tell the story of this band of musical warriors in our new, four-part public television series, Over There. Doughboys in The Great War, and we are going to re-build the Hell-Fighters band.

By drawing young African American musicians from across the Carolinas and Georgia, the Hell-Fighters band of James Reese Europe will come alive.

Story of African American Hero to feature in forthcoming WWI series.

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Henry Lincoln Johnson, aka Black Death

Redcap Henry Johnson enlisted in the US Army June 5^th 1917. Joining the all black New York National Guard, which became the 369^th Infantry Regiment, nicknamed The Harlem Hell Fighters. Arriving in France on New Year’s Day 1918 Henry and his comrades were assigned menial chores on account of the strict segregation laws that existed in the US Armed Forces of WWI. Within several months, and without any hint of racial bias French Command took control of the 369.^thand dubbed them Les Enfants Perdus.... The Lost Children.  They began the task of training these Black Sons of New York in combat tactics. Wearing French helmets and armed with French weapons the unit was honed into a fighting force that would distinguish itself time and again.

In Minacourt, France the men of the 369th came face to face with the horrors of war for the first time.

There were a whole lot of blind men, and one-legged men, and one-armed men, and sick men, all-coming this way. I asked a white man where all these wounded men come from? And he says, 'Nigger, they're coming from right where you're going the day after tomorrow.' Said a veteran of the 369^th’s march to the front.

Stones, dirt, shrapnel, limbs and whole trees filled the air. The noise and concussion alone were enough to kill you. Flashes of fire, the metallic crack of high explosives, the awful explosions that dug holes fifteen and twenty feet in diameter. The utter and complete pandemonium and the stench of hell, your friends blown to bits, the pieces dropping near you." (Major Warner Ross)

During the night of May 14th, 1918, Privates Henry Johnson and Needham Roberts were on guard duty as a German grenade landed near them.  Needham was instantly put out of action and Henry Johnson, wounded was left to face a German trench raiding party, all alone.

Badly wounded and dazed from the explosion, Henry fell upon the raiders with ferocity. Slashing with his bolo knife, clubbing with his rifle until it broke in shards and launching a grenade, he singlehandedly killed or wounded 24 Germans and rescued his buddy Roberts from certain capture.

Cartoon of Henry's Actions.

There isn't so much to tell. Just fought for my life. A rabbit would've done that.(Private Henry Johnson)

For his actions at Minacourt, Henry Lincoln Johnson was awarded The Croix de Guerre with star and gold palm, France’s highest honor. It would not be until long after his death that the United States recognized his bravery. In 1995 during the Clinton Administration he was posthumously awarded a Purple Heart for his wounds and in 2003 after many years of lobbying, the Bush Administration awarded him the Distinguished Service Cross 

for extraordinary heroism in action in France during the period 13 - 15 May 1918.

Sergeant Henry Johnson died penniless in New Lennox, Illinois at the Veterans Hospital, on July 5, 1929. He is buried in Arlington National Cemetery. He was 32..