WWI. The Chemists War

World War I was the origin for many of the world’s “firsts,” including the first use of chemical warfare. Though chemical warfare any type of poisonous weaponry was supposedly banned in the 1899 and 1907 Hague Conventions (an international peace conference), it was the poisonous gases during World War I that caused over 1,230,000 injuries, and approximately 91,000 fatalities worldwide, giving it an appropriate reputation of perhaps one of the most feared weapons of the time. 

Chlorine Gas Distribution

Particularly prevalent during this time was sulfur mustard, otherwise known as mustard gas. This poison gas worked so well in war times due to the fact that it took very little to cause mass casualties and injuries, and it was able to achieve multiple avenues of damage to opposing troops. Not only was the gas capable of causing bodily harm, but it also contaminated food and water sources, permeated surrounding land masses, and even infiltrated the very trenches that soldiers inhabited day and night. Mustard gas also can be carried by the wind, allowing it to move wherever it likes, unlike a simple bullet that has but one instantaneous destination (although, it can be carried via artillery shell, as the Germans first utilized in 1917). While most weaponry provides immediate and short-lived effects, mustard gas can potentially continue to haunt an area, whether that be a human body as it slowly takes its toll or a land mass as it essentially invades its soil, for weeks at a time.

British Tommies Blinded By Gas

While the effects of sulfur mustard gas can vary, there are 5 primary symptoms of mustard gas poisoning:

1.     Skin blistering: if exposed, particularly in hot or tropical climates, mustard gas’ exposure to the skin can cause up to second and third degree burns and painful blistering, as well as severe scarring. These signs usually appear within 24-48 hours after exposure and being with the skin turning red to yellow in color.

2.     Blinding: If exposure to mustard gas is severe enough, it can cause temporary blinding and severe irritation within 3-12 hours after contact.

3.     Aplastic or Pancytopenia anemia: a decrease in the number the number of blood cells and platelets being created as the gas infects the bone marrow.

4.     Digestive Tract irritation: As the gas makes its way through the body, it may cause fever, diarrhea, nausea, vomiting, and general abdominal pain.

5.     Respiratory tract irritation: A runny/bloody nose, coughing, and shortness of breath, severe irritation (blistering of the lungs and windpipe) are also symptoms of exposure to mustard gas without proper protection.

Russian Casualties Of Poison Gas

More long term effects include permanent blindness, lung cancer, and/other death.

While this form of chemical warfare was quite popular, it was not nearly the sole weapon of mass destruction used during the Great War. Others included chlorine gas - which was actually used as the very first mass attack by the Germans and the very first use of chemical weapons in World War I at the Second Battle of Ypres on April 22, 1915 - phosgene and diphosgene, which work to destroy the respiratory organs, like chlorine gas, as well as hydrogen cyanide and cyanogen chloride which essentially cause the body to become unable to receive oxygen. 

It can be said that World War I is the chemists’ war due to the new level of mass destruction the use of scientific weapons as opposed to previous forms of defense. However, the use of chemical weapons was still very much alive and well, and not just a threat to the front lines, but also for those at home fearing attacks (as seen in the featured informative video advising citizens how to treat poisonous gas exposure).

Post by : Raven Joyner, Livingbattlefield Researcher and Intern.

Bibliography

"Facts About Sulfur Mustard." Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <http://www.bt.cdc.gov/agent/sulfurmustard/basics/facts.asp>.

"Fast Facts: Mustard Gas." Fox News. FOX News Network, 17 May 2004. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <http://www.foxnews.com/story/2004/05/17/fast-facts-mustard-gas/>.

"Firstworldwar.com." First World War. N.p., n.d. Web. 18 Apr. 2014. <http://www.firstworldwar.com/weaponry/gas.htm>.

Fitzgerald, Gerard J. "Chemical Warfare and Medical Response During World War I." National Center for Biotechnology Information. U.S. National Library of Medicine, 27 Sept. 2005. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2376985/>.

"Gas Warfare : United States. Surgeon-General's Office : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive." Internet Archive. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <https://archive.org/details/101560809.nlm.nih.gov>.

"Photos of The Great War." - Error. The Great War Primary Document Archive, n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <http://www.gwpda.org/photos/coppermine/thumbnails.php>.

Schneider, Barry R. "Chemical Weapon." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/108951/chemical-weapon>.

"The Use of Gas Warfare in World War One." The Use of Gas Warfare in World War One. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Apr. 2014. <http://www.wwvets.com/GasWarfare.html>.

"What to Do in a Gas Attack : Filmedia Corp. : Free Download & Streaming : Internet Archive." Internet Archive. N.p., n.d. Web. 21 Apr. 2014. <https://archive.org/details/WhattoDo1943>.

April 6th 2017, An Opportunity For Our Kids To Understand How 'The Great War' Changed America.

 

Typical WWI Scene of American Troops in Action

The First World War changed a lot about America as a country, but also American daily life, society and roles in society. During America’s time in the war, many women – including those who typically worked in a more domesticated work force – helped play their part in the war by enlisting  in the military. Though women at the time were not fighting on the front line, 21,000 enlisted in the Army and Navy Nurse Corps as there was an enormous need for nurses and medical assistance on battlefields. In many cases, nurses ended up wounded or even killed by gunfire while trying to attend to male soldiers’ needs after being injured. 

A Group of Nurses Outside Their Barracks.

            Back at home, however, women were also filling in  male positions in the workforce while so many of America’s men got drafted in to the war. Attending to new types of job opportunities and positions within society lead to many advancements and changes in gender roles for the female population. 

Women Building Boats During WWI

It became much more common to see women in pants, or “trouserettes,” as they needed less binding clothing that prevented them from being able to perform new duties in factories and other fields. 

 

Women in Trouserettes

These changes in gender roles lead America as a whole to see women as more valuable members of society than ever before, thus initiating the 19^th amendment to the constitution which gave women the right to vote. The same cannot be said, however, for African Americans who also played a major role in the war.

  Despite numerous women helping fill out societal roles, as the Great War put a halt on immigration, America still found itself with a lack of workers to fill much needed positions. This gave African Americans the perfect opportunity to seek out those very jobs and expand across America. The African American expansion initiated by World War I – when approximately 6 million African Americans migrated North – is known as The Great Migration, which lasted from 1915 to 1970. 

 

African Americans On The Move During WWI

During the great migration, many southern musicians migrated to New York, particularly Harlem, which sparked the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s. Musical styles that had been inherent to southern black culture suddenly became welcome and loved in the northern areas of the country, particularly jazz. Who knew WWI was a primary factor in the creation of the Jazz Age?

 

Lieutenant James Reese Europe & the 369th

Despite all of the migratingion, nearly 400,000 African Americans still enlisted in the United States Army. This number is particularly profound due to the fact that racism and intolerance were still thriving in the United States, so much so that African Americans were subject to Jim Crow laws even while in training to fight for their country. Out of those enlisted, nearly 200,000 went to serve in Europe, though only roughly 42,000 actually ever fought on the front lines. Others helped run military encampments by serving as cooks as other much needed jobs. However, out of the 42,000 that served in combative roles, particularly the 369^th infantry, better known as the Harlem Hell-Fighters, 191 of their days  in Europe were in spent combat, which was the longest of all American units at the time.

             African Americans were not the only minorities assisting America in WWI; Native Americans also played a major role in the war efforts. Approximately 12,000 enlisted in WWI, which is particularly interesting given that they were not even considered citizens at the time. In fact, they could not even vote! Perhaps the most important role Native Americans played in WWI was that of “code-talking,” which essentially was utilizing the nearly 30 different languages and dialects inherent to the Native Americans in order to disorient and perplex enemies when sending messages. 
 

Edward Denomie, Famous Code Talker.

The Code-Talkers, as they became known, would deliver messages in Native American tongue, and later translate them for their American counterparts. This ensured less breaches in security and military plans.
 

Back at home, however, Native Americans lost a lot of their already sparse reservation areas due to land being needed for things such as war gardens – a garden planted with the intended purpose of increasing American food supply during the war, especially being that the majority of soldiers now fighting in the war were previously American farmers. Much of the nation’s food supply was aided by Native Americans, women, and even children.

Famous WWI Propaganda Poster.

            The Boy Scouts of America (founded 1910) and the Girl Scouts of the United States of America (founded 1912) both went through great lengths to fundraise and provide resources for the war, including planting war gardens (the Boy Scouts alone planted over 12,000). While girl were busy learning about food production and conservation and working in hospitals, the boys worked on selling liberty loans or war bonds to the public, which essentially was a fundraising effort to help finance the war. With the use of these loans, the Boy Scouts raised over $355 million for war funding. Both Boy and Girl Scouts collected peach pits for the war, which were used in the filters for gas masks. Boy Scouts reportedly collected approximately 100 railroad cars full of peach pits!

 

1st Girl Scouts And Their Founder.

            Though everyone was working hard in the continental US to help soldiers overseas, many still found time to relax and attend theater screenings, though they did not exactly escape the war in the cinema, either. Many propaganda filled productions were in circulation at the time. Film such as Kaiser: The Beast of Berlin (1918), Wolves of Kulture (1918), and Hearts of the World (1918) were widely popular screenings to attend. Hearts of the World was an especially interesting production due to the fact that the director of the film, D.W. Griffith, also directed the film Birth of a Nation (1915) just three years earlier, which exemplified extraordinary values of racism and attempted to justify bigotry within the country. Many found it intriguing that Griffith used the same cinematic and propaganda tactics to sway audiences to be more passionate about the war and America’s involvement.

Raven Joyner
Principal Research Assistant
Over There Doughboys in The Great War

 

Bibliography

"10 Things to Do This Weekend." Crain's Chicago Business. Crain's Chicago Business, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

Britten, Thomas A. American Indians in World War I: At Home and at War. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico, 1997. Print.

"Girl Scouts Timeline1912-1919." History. Girl Scouts of the United States of America, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

"Great Migration: The African-American Exodus North." NPR. NPR, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"History of the BSA Highlights." History of the BSA Highlights. Boy Scouts of America, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

McDaid, Jennifer D. "Virginia Women and the First World War." Library of Virginia, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"Native Americans in the U.S. Military." Native Americans in the U.S. Military. United States Navy, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

"PDF Archives: April 27, 1917." PDF Archives: 04/27/1917. Minnesota Daily, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"Photographs of the 369th Infantry and African Americans during World War I." National Archives and Records Administration. National Archives and Records Administration, n.d. Web. 09 Feb. 2014.

"Post-World War I American Cinema." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. Encyclopedia Britannica, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

Reilly, Chrissie. "Native Americans Vex Germany." Native Americans in the U.S. Military. United States Army, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

"The World War I War Garden and Victory Garden - How Does Your Garden Grow Online Exhibit State Historical Society of North Dakota." The World War I War Garden and Victory Garden - How Does Your Garden Grow Online Exhibit State Historical Society of North Dakota. Library of Congress, n.d. Web. 10 Feb. 2014.

 

First American Aviator To Shoot Down A German Plane During WWI.

Kiffin Yates Rockwell (1892-1916)

Kiffin Rockwell in French Uniform, September 1915

Early Life:

Kiffin Rockwell was born in Newport, Tennessee in 1892. However, between his South Carolinian mother and Rockwell’s North Carolinian father, Rockwell has been dubbed an honorary indigene of the Carolinas and is often referred to as such. Due to the death of Rockwell’s father and wanting a better life for her children, Mrs. Rockwell moved her family back to her home town in Marion County, South Carolina before settling in Ashville in 1906 in hopes of providing a decent education for her children. 

Military Years:

             In 1908, Rockwell attended the Virginia Military Institute. Being that military blood already ran in the family – Rockwell’s maternal grandfather from South Carolina was an officer in the Confederate Army, and his paternal grandfather from North Carolina was a captain serving in the same Army – it was no surprise that when World War I broke out in Europe in 1914, Rockwell and his brother Paul were among the first three Americans to volunteer their services to the French Army.

While serving in Europe, Rockwell fought with Battalion C of the Second Marching Regiment of the Second Foreign Battalion, which lasted until 1915 when he fell victim to a (second) very serious leg injury. Despite his wounds, he was then prompted to take on aviation as an alternative to stay in the military. As a result of such, Rockwell became one of the founding members of the Escadrille Americaine, which later became known as the Escadrille LaFayette. 

Kiffin Beside His Aircraft, Nieuport 17

Many refer to Rockwell as a particularly diligent and unwavering airman. Rockwell holds the title for the first American to take down a German plane during WWI, despite his lack of any piloting skills prior to joining the French in aviation (which he had done just 28 days before). Rockwell continued to fight in 142 other aerial battles. Among the awards Rockwell received while enlisted include the Médaille Militaire and Croix de Guerre.

A Modern Replica Of The Nieuport 17

Death:

            After being shot down by a German plane, Rockwell fell to his death in Verdun, France in September of 1916 after an exploding bullet hit him in the chest. He was the second American in WWI to be killed in flight. Rockwell is currently buried in the Lafayette Escadrille Memorial in Marnes-la-Coquette, France.

Kiffin's Grave Alongside Fellow Flyers

Article: Raven Joyner

Principal Research Assistant 

'Over There' Doughboys in The Great War

Resoures

"Kiffin Rockwell: The Carolinas' First Lost Hero in WWI." Kiffin Rockwell: The Carolinas' First Lost Hero in WWI. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Kiffin Yates Rockwell (1892 - 1916) - Find A Grave Memorial." Kiffin Yates Rockwell (1892 - 1916) - Find A Grave Memorial. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"North Carolina Centennial of Flight." North Carolina Centennial of Flight. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Rockwell, Kiffin Yates." NCpedia Home Page. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Welcome to the Smith McDowel House Museum in Asheville, NC." Welcome to the Smith McDowel House Museum in Asheville, NC. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.

"Kiffin Y. Rockwell, World War I AviatorLafayette EscadrilleBiography & Photographs."Kiffin Y. Rockwell, World War I Aviator. Lafayette Escadrille. N.p., n.d. Web. 28 Jan. 2014.